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Ruby (programming language)

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Ruby_on_Rails" title="Ruby on Rails">Ruby on Rails</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#e0e0e0;">Ruby</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Paradigm</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Multi-paradigm_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-paradigm programming language">Multi-paradigm</a>: <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional</a>, <a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperative</a>, <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented</a>, <a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">reflective</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Designed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Yukihiro_Matsumoto" title="Yukihiro Matsumoto">Yukihiro Matsumoto</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_developer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software developer">Developer</a></th><td class="infobox-data organiser">Yukihiro Matsumoto, et al.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First appeared</th><td class="infobox-data">1995 (1995)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">Stable release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">3.4.5 <a href="#cite_note-Ruby_3.3.0_Released-1">[1]</a>

/ 15 July 2025 (15 July 2025)</div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Type_system" title="Type system">Typing discipline</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Duck_typing" title="Duck typing">Duck</a>, <a href="Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic typing">dynamic</a>, <a href="Strong_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong typing">strong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Scope_(computer_science)" title="Scope (computer science)">Scope</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Lexical, sometimes dynamic</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Implementation language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">OS</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Cross-platform" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-platform">Cross-platform</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_license" title="Software license">License</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Ruby_License" title="Ruby License">Ruby License</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Filename_extension" title="Filename extension">Filename extensions</a></th><td class="infobox-data">.rb, .ru</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/">ruby-lang.org</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Major <a href="Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">implementations</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="Ruby_MRI" title="Ruby MRI">Ruby MRI</a>, <a href="GraalVM#Language_and_Runtime_Support" title="GraalVM">TruffleRuby</a>, <a href="YARV" title="YARV">YARV</a>, <a href="Rubinius" title="Rubinius">Rubinius</a>, <a href="JRuby" title="JRuby">JRuby</a>, <a href="RubyMotion" title="RubyMotion">RubyMotion</a>, <a href="Mruby" title="Mruby">mruby</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced by</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a>,<a href="#cite_note-nov2pro-2">[2]</a> <a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">Basic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-confreaks-3">[3]</a> <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>,<a href="#cite_note-nov2pro-2">[2]</a> <a href="CLU_(programming_language)" title="CLU (programming language)">CLU</a>,<a href="#cite_note-bini-4">[4]</a> <a href="Dylan_(programming_language)" title="Dylan (programming language)">Dylan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-bini-4">[4]</a> <a href="Eiffel_(programming_language)" title="Eiffel (programming language)">Eiffel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-nov2pro-2">[2]</a> <a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>,<a href="#cite_note-bini-4">[4]</a> <a href="Lua_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lua (programming language)">Lua</a>, <a href="Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>,<a href="#cite_note-bini-4">[4]</a> <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>,<a href="#cite_note-bini-4">[4]</a> <a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a><a href="#cite_note-bini-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="Clojure" title="Clojure">Clojure</a>, <a href="CoffeeScript" title="CoffeeScript">CoffeeScript</a>, <a href="Crystal_(programming_language)" title="Crystal (programming language)">Crystal</a>, <a href="D_(programming_language)" title="D (programming language)">D</a>, <a href="Elixir_(programming_language)" title="Elixir (programming language)">Elixir</a>, <a href="Groovy_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Groovy (programming language)">Groovy</a>, <a href="Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Julia-5">[5]</a> <a href="Mirah_(programming_language)" title="Mirah (programming language)">Mirah</a>, <a href="Nu_(programming_language)" title="Nu (programming language)">Nu</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Burks-6">[6]</a> <a href="Ring_(programming_language)" title="Ring (programming language)">Ring</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Ring_and_other_languages-7">[7]</a> <a href="Rust_(programming_language)" title="Rust (programming language)">Rust</a>,<a href="#cite_note-rust-8">[8]</a> <a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a><a href="#cite_note-lattner2014-9">[9]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below hlist" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 3px;">

<ul><li> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ruby_Programming" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Ruby Programming">Ruby Programming</a> at Wikibooks</li></ul>

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Ruby is a <a href="General-purpose_programming_language" title="General-purpose programming language">general-purpose programming language</a>. It was designed with an emphasis on programming productivity and simplicity. In Ruby, everything is an <a href="Object_(computer_science)" title="Object (computer science)">object</a>, including <a href="Primitive_data_type" title="Primitive data type">primitive data types</a>. It was developed in the mid-1990s by <a href="Yukihiro_Matsumoto" title="Yukihiro Matsumoto">Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto</a> in <a href="Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>.

Ruby is <a href="Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">interpreted</a>, <a href="High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level</a>, and <a href="Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic typing">dynamically typed</a>; its interpreter uses <a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collection</a> and <a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compilation</a>. It supports multiple programming paradigms, including <a href="Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">procedural</a>, <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented</a>, and <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a>. According to the creator, Ruby was influenced by <a href="Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>, <a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a>, <a href="Eiffel_(programming_language)" title="Eiffel (programming language)">Eiffel</a>, <a href="Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a>, <a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>, and <a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>.<a href="#cite_note-about-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-confreaks-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_concept">Early concept</h3></div>

According to Matsumoto, Ruby was conceived in 1993. In a 1999 post to the Ruby-Talk mailing list, he shared some of his early ideas about the language:<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I was talking with my colleague about the possibility of an object-oriented scripting language. I knew Perl (Perl4, not Perl5), but I didn't like it really, because it had the smell of a <a href="Toy_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Toy language">toy language</a> (it still has). The object-oriented language seemed very promising. I knew <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a> then. But I didn't like it, because I didn't think it was a true object-oriented language – OO features appeared to be add-on to the language. As a language maniac and OO fan for 15 years, I really wanted a genuine object-oriented, easy-to-use scripting language. I looked for but couldn't find one. So I decided to make it.</blockquote>

Matsumoto described Ruby's design as resembling a simple <a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a> language at its core, with an object system like that of Smalltalk, blocks inspired by <a href="Higher-order_function" title="Higher-order function">higher-order functions</a>, and practical utility like that of Perl.<a href="#cite_note-lisp-features-12">[12]</a>

The name "Ruby" originated during an online chat session between Matsumoto and Keiju Ishitsuka on 24 February 1993, before any code had been written.<a href="#cite_note-rubyconf-history-of-ruby-13">[13]</a> Two names were initially proposed: "Coral" and "Ruby". Matsumoto chose the latter in a subsequent email to Ishitsuka.<a href="#cite_note-ruby-name-14">[14]</a> He also noted that one factor influencing the choice of the name was that a colleague's <a href="Birthstone" title="Birthstone">birthstone</a> was <a href="Ruby_(gemstone)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruby (gemstone)">ruby</a>.<a href="#cite_note-faq-name-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-ruby-talk-name-16">[16]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_releases">Early releases</h3></div>

The first public release of Ruby 0.95 was announced on Japanese domestic <a href="Newsgroup" class="mw-redirect" title="Newsgroup">newsgroups</a> on 21 December 1995.<a href="#cite_note-0.95-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-ruby-history-18">[18]</a> Subsequently, three more versions of Ruby were released in two days.<a href="#cite_note-rubyconf-history-of-ruby-13">[13]</a> The release coincided with the launch of the <a href="Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese-language</a> ruby-list mailing list, which was the first mailing list for the new language.

Already present at this stage of development were many of the features familiar in later releases of Ruby, including <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented</a> design, <a href="Class_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Class (computer science)">classes</a> with inheritance, <a href="Mixin" title="Mixin">mixins</a>, <a href="Iterator" title="Iterator">iterators</a>, <a href="Closure_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Closure (computer science)">closures</a>, <a href="Exception_handling" title="Exception handling">exception handling</a> and <a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tutorial-features-19">[19]</a>

After the release of Ruby 0.95 in 1995, several stable versions of Ruby were released in these years.<a href="#cite_note-rubyconf-history-of-ruby-13">[13]</a>

In 1997, the first article about Ruby was published on the Web. In the same year, Matsumoto was hired by <a href="Network_Applied_Communication_Laboratory" title="Network Applied Communication Laboratory">netlab.jp</a> to work on Ruby as a full-time developer.<a href="#cite_note-rubyconf-history-of-ruby-13">[13]</a>

In 1998, the Ruby Application Archive was launched by Matsumoto, along with a simple English-language homepage for Ruby.<a href="#cite_note-rubyconf-history-of-ruby-13">[13]</a>

In 1999, the first English language mailing list ruby-talk began, which signaled a growing interest in the language outside Japan.<a href="#cite_note-linuxdevcenter-20">[20]</a> In this same year, Matsumoto and Keiju Ishitsuka wrote the first book on Ruby, The Object-oriented Scripting Language Ruby (オブジェクト指向スクリプト言語 Ruby), which was published in Japan in October 1999. It would be followed in the early 2000s by around 20 books on Ruby published in Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-rubyconf-history-of-ruby-13">[13]</a>

By 2000, Ruby was more popular than Python in Japan.<a href="#cite_note-programming-ruby-21">[21]</a> In September 2000, the first English language book <a href="Programming_Ruby" title="Programming Ruby">Programming Ruby</a> was printed, which was later freely released to the public, further widening the adoption of Ruby amongst English speakers. In early 2002, the English-language ruby-talk mailing list was receiving more messages than the Japanese-language ruby-list, demonstrating Ruby's increasing popularity in the non-Japanese speaking world.

Ruby 1.8 was initially released August 2003, was stable for a long time, and was retired June 2013.<a href="#cite_note-1.8.7-retirement-22">[22]</a> Although deprecated, there is still code based on it. Ruby 1.8 is only partially compatible with Ruby 1.9.

Ruby 1.8 has been the subject of several industry standards. The language specifications for Ruby were developed by the Open Standards Promotion Center of the Information-Technology Promotion Agency (a <a href="Government_of_Japan" title="Government of Japan">Japanese government</a> agency) for submission to the <a href="Japanese_Industrial_Standards_Committee" title="Japanese Industrial Standards Committee">Japanese Industrial Standards Committee</a> (JISC) and then to the <a href="International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> (ISO). It was accepted as a Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS X 3017) in 2011<a href="#cite_note-JIS_X_3017-23">[23]</a> and an international standard (ISO/IEC 30170) in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-IPA-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-IEC_30170-25">[25]</a>

Around 2005, interest in the Ruby language surged in tandem with <a href="Ruby_on_Rails" title="Ruby on Rails">Ruby on Rails</a>, a <a href="Web_framework" title="Web framework">web framework</a> written in Ruby. Rails is frequently credited with increasing awareness of Ruby.<a href="#cite_note-Devarticles-26">[26]</a>

Effective with Ruby 1.9.3, released 31 October 2011,<a href="#cite_note-Ruby_1.9.3-27">[27]</a> Ruby switched from being dual-licensed under the Ruby License and the GPL to being dual-licensed under the Ruby License and the two-clause BSD license.<a href="#cite_note-license-change-28">[28]</a> Adoption of 1.9 was slowed by changes from 1.8 that required many popular third party <a href="#Repositories_and_libraries">gems</a> to be rewritten.

Ruby 2.0 was intended to be fully backward compatible with Ruby 1.9.3. As of the official 2.0.0 release on 24 February 2013, there were only five known incompatibilities.<a href="#cite_note-2-0-release-incompatibilities-29">[29]</a>

Starting with 2.1.0, Ruby's versioning policy changed to be more similar to <a href="Semantic_versioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic versioning">semantic versioning</a>, although it differs slightly in that minor version increments may be API incompatible.<a href="#cite_note-semantic-versioning-30">[30]</a>

Ruby 2.2.0 includes speed-ups, bugfixes, and library updates and removes some deprecated APIs. Most notably, Ruby 2.2.0 introduces changes to memory handling – an incremental garbage collector, support for garbage collection of symbols and the option to compile directly against jemalloc. It also contains experimental support for using <a href="Vfork" class="mw-redirect" title="Vfork">vfork</a>(2) with system() and spawn(), and added support for the <a href="Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> 7.0 specification. Since version 2.2.1,<a href="#cite_note-2-2-1-release-31">[31]</a> <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Matz's_Ruby_interpreter">Ruby MRI</a> performance on <a href="Ppc64" title="Ppc64">PowerPC64</a> was improved.<a href="#cite_note-2-2-1-changelog-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pedrosa-1-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pedrosa-2-34">[34]</a> Features that were made obsolete or removed include callcc, the DL library, Digest::HMAC, lib/rational.rb, lib/complex.rb, GServer, Logger::Application as well as various C API functions.<a href="#cite_note-obsolete-or-gone-in-2.2-35">[35]</a>

Ruby 2.3.0 includes many performance improvements, updates, and bugfixes including changes to Proc#call, Socket and IO use of exception keywords, Thread#name handling, default passive Net::FTP connections, and Rake being removed from stdlib.<a href="#cite_note-Ruby_2.3.0_NEWS-36">[36]</a> Other notable changes include:

<ul><li>The ability to mark all <a href="String_literal" title="String literal">string literals</a> as frozen by default with a consequently large performance increase in string operations.<a href="#cite_note-frozen-strings-37">[37]</a></li>

<li>Hash comparison to allow direct checking of key/value pairs instead of just keys.</li>

<li>A new <a href="Safe_navigation_operator" title="Safe navigation operator">safe navigation operator</a> <code>&.</code> that can ease nil handling (e.g. instead of <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-ruby mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">if obj && obj.foo && obj.foo.bar</code>, we can use <code>if obj&.foo&.bar</code>).</li>

<li>The did_you_mean gem is now bundled by default and required on startup to automatically suggest similar name matches on a NameError or NoMethodError.</li>

<li>Hash#dig and Array#dig to easily extract deeply nested values (e.g. given <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-ruby mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">profile = { social: { wikipedia: { name: 'Foo Baz' } } }</code>, the value Foo Baz can now be retrieved by <code>profile.dig(:social, :wikipedia, :name)</code>).</li>

<li><code>.grep_v(regexp)</code> which will match all negative examples of a given regular expression in addition to other new features.</li></ul>

Ruby 2.4.0 includes performance improvements to hash table, Array#max, Array#min, and instance variable access.<a href="#cite_note-:0-38">[38]</a> Other notable changes include:

<ul><li>Binding#irb: Start a REPL session similar to binding.pry</li>

<li>Unify Fixnum and Bignum into Integer class</li>

<li>String supports Unicode case mappings, not just ASCII</li>

<li>A new method, Regexp#match?, which is a faster Boolean version of Regexp#match</li>

<li>Thread deadlock detection now shows threads with their backtrace and dependency</li></ul>

A few notable changes in Ruby 2.5.0 include rescue and ensure statements automatically use a surrounding do-end block (less need for extra begin-end blocks), method-chaining with yield_self, support for branch coverage and method coverage measurement, and easier Hash transformations with Hash#slice and Hash#transform_keys On top of that come a lot of performance improvements like faster block passing (3 times faster), faster Mutexes, faster ERB templates and improvements on some concatenation methods.

A few notable changes in Ruby 2.6.0 include an experimental <a href="Just-in-time_compiler" class="mw-redirect" title="Just-in-time compiler">just-in-time compiler</a> (JIT), and RubyVM::AbstractSyntaxTree (experimental).

A few notable changes in Ruby 2.7.0 include pattern Matching (experimental), REPL improvements, a compaction GC, and separation of positional and keyword arguments.

Ruby 3.0.0 was released on <a href="Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a> Day in 2020.<a href="#cite_note-Ruby_3.0.0_Released-39">[39]</a> It is known as Ruby 3x3, which signifies that programs would run three times faster in Ruby 3.0 comparing to Ruby 2.0.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> and some had already implemented in intermediate releases on the road from 2 to 3. To achieve 3x3, Ruby 3 comes with MJIT, and later YJIT, Just-In-Time Compilers, to make programs faster, although they are described as experimental and remain disabled by default (enabled by flags at runtime).

Another goal of Ruby 3.0 is to improve <a href="Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">concurrency</a> and two more utilities Fibre Scheduler, and experimental Ractor facilitate the goal.<a href="#cite_note-Ruby_3.0.0_Released-39">[39]</a> Ractor is light-weight and thread-safe as it is achieved by exchanging messages rather than shared objects.

Ruby 3.0 introduces RBS language to describe the types of Ruby programs for <a href="Static_program_analysis" title="Static program analysis">static analysis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ruby_3.0.0_Released-39">[39]</a> It is separated from general Ruby programs.

There are some syntax enhancements and library changes in Ruby 3.0 as well.<a href="#cite_note-Ruby_3.0.0_Released-39">[39]</a>

Ruby 3.1 was released on 25 December 2021.<a href="#cite_note-Ruby_3.1.0_Released-41">[41]</a> It includes YJIT, a new, experimental, Just-In-Time Compiler developed by <a href="Shopify" title="Shopify">Shopify</a>, to enhance the performance of real world business applications. A new <a href="Debugger" title="Debugger">debugger</a> is also included. There are some syntax enhancements and other improvements in this release. Network libraries for <a href="FTP" class="mw-redirect" title="FTP">FTP</a>, <a href="SMTP" class="mw-redirect" title="SMTP">SMTP</a>, <a href="IMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="IMAP">IMAP</a>, and <a href="Post_Office_Protocol" title="Post Office Protocol">POP</a> are moved from default gems to bundled gems.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>

Ruby 3.2 was released on 25 December 2022.<a href="#cite_note-Ruby_3.2.0_Released-43">[43]</a> It brings support for being run inside of a <a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a> environment via a WASI interface. <a href="Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">Regular expressions</a> also receives some improvements, including a faster, <a href="Memoization" title="Memoization">memoized</a> matching algorithm to protect against certain <a href="ReDoS" title="ReDoS">ReDoS</a> attacks, and configurable timeouts for regular expression matching. Additional debugging and syntax features are also included in this release, which include syntax suggestion, as well as error highlighting. The MJIT compiler has been re-implemented as a standard library module, while the YJIT, a <a href="Rust_(programming_language)" title="Rust (programming language)">Rust</a>-based <a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">JIT</a> compiler now supports more architectures on Linux.

Ruby 3.3 was released on 25 December 2023.<a href="#cite_note-Ruby_3.3.0_Released-1">[1]</a> Ruby 3.3 introduces significant enhancements and performance improvements to the language. Key features include the introduction of the Prism parser for portable and maintainable parsing, the addition of the pure-Ruby JIT compiler RJIT, and major performance boosts in the YJIT compiler. Additionally, improvements in memory usage, the introduction of an M:N thread scheduler, and updates to the standard library contribute to a more efficient and developer-friendly Ruby ecosystem.

Ruby 3.4 was released on 25 December 2024.<a href="#cite_note-Ruby_3.4.0_Released-44">[44]</a> Ruby 3.4 adds <code>it</code> block parameter reference, changes Prism as default parser, adds <a href="Happy_Eyeballs" title="Happy Eyeballs">Happy Eyeballs</a> Version 2 support to socket library, improves YJIT, adds modular Garbage Collector and so on.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Semantics_and_philosophy">Semantics and philosophy</h2></div>

Matsumoto has said that Ruby is designed for programmer productivity and fun, following the principles of good <a href="User_interface" title="User interface">user interface</a> design.<a href="#cite_note-informit-46">[46]</a> At a Google Tech Talk in 2008 he said, "I hope to see Ruby help every programmer in the world to be productive, and to enjoy programming, and to be happy. That is the primary purpose of Ruby language."<a href="#cite_note-googletechtalk-47">[47]</a> He stresses that systems design needs to emphasize human, rather than computer, needs:<a href="#cite_note-artima-48">[48]</a>

Often people, especially computer engineers, focus on the machines. They think, "By doing this, the machine will run fast. By doing this, the machine will run more effectively. By doing this, the machine will something something something." They are focusing on machines. But in fact we need to focus on humans, on how humans care about doing programming or operating the application of the machines. We are the masters. They are the slaves.

</blockquote>

Matsumoto has said his primary design goal was to make a language that he himself enjoyed using, by minimizing programmer work and possible confusion. He has said that he had not applied the <a href="Principle_of_least_astonishment" title="Principle of least astonishment">principle of least astonishment</a> (POLA) to the design of Ruby;<a href="#cite_note-artima-48">[48]</a> in a May 2005 discussion on the newsgroup comp.lang.ruby, Matsumoto attempted to distance Ruby from POLA, explaining that because any design choice will be surprising to someone, he uses a personal standard in evaluating surprise. If that personal standard remains consistent, there would be few surprises for those familiar with the standard.<a href="#cite_note-rubyweeklynews-49">[49]</a>

Matsumoto defined it this way in an interview:<a href="#cite_note-artima-48">[48]</a>

Everyone has an individual background. Someone may come from Python, someone else may come from Perl, and they may be surprised by different aspects of the language. Then they come up to me and say, 'I was surprised by this feature of the language, so Ruby violates the principle of least surprise.' Wait. Wait. The principle of least surprise is not for you only. The principle of least surprise means principle of least my surprise. And it means the principle of least surprise after you learn Ruby very well. For example, I was a C++ programmer before I started designing Ruby. I programmed in C++ exclusively for two or three years. And after two years of C++ programming, it still surprises me.

</blockquote>

Ruby is <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented</a>: every value is an object, including classes and instances of types that many other languages designate as primitives (such as <a href="Integer_(computer_science)" title="Integer (computer science)">integers</a>, Booleans, and "<a href="Null_pointer" title="Null pointer">null</a>"). Because everything in Ruby is an object, everything in Ruby has certain built-in abilities called methods. Every <a href="Function_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Function (programming)">function</a> is a <a href="Method_(computer_programming)" title="Method (computer programming)">method</a> and methods are always called on an object. Methods defined at the top level scope become methods of the Object class. Since this class is an ancestor of every other class, such methods can be called on any object. They are also visible in all scopes, effectively serving as "global" procedures. Ruby supports <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a> with <a href="Dynamic_dispatch" title="Dynamic dispatch">dynamic dispatch</a>, <a href="Mixin" title="Mixin">mixins</a> and singleton methods (belonging to, and defined for, a single <a href="Instance_(computer_science)" title="Instance (computer science)">instance</a> rather than being defined on the class). Though Ruby does not support <a href="Multiple_inheritance" title="Multiple inheritance">multiple inheritance</a>, classes can import <a href="Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">modules</a> as mixins.

Ruby has been described as a <a href="Multi-paradigm_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-paradigm programming language">multi-paradigm programming language</a>: it allows procedural programming (defining functions/variables outside classes makes them part of the root, 'self' Object), with object orientation (everything is an object) or <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a> (it has <a href="Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">anonymous functions</a>, <a href="Closure_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Closure (computer science)">closures</a>, and <a href="Continuation" title="Continuation">continuations</a>; statements all have values, and functions return the last evaluation). It has support for <a href="Introspection_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Introspection (computer science)">introspection</a>, <a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">reflective programming</a>, <a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">metaprogramming</a>, and interpreter-based <a href="Thread_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thread (computer science)">threads</a>. Ruby features <a href="Type_system" title="Type system">dynamic typing</a>, and supports <a href="Parametric_polymorphism" title="Parametric polymorphism">parametric polymorphism</a>.

According to the Ruby FAQ, the syntax is similar to <a href="Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>'s and the semantics are similar to <a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk's</a>, but the design philosophy differs greatly from <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>'s.<a href="#cite_note-faq-comparison-50">[50]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features">Features</h2></div>

<ul><li>Thoroughly <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented</a> with <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a>, <a href="Mixin" title="Mixin">mixins</a> and <a href="Metaclass" title="Metaclass">metaclasses</a><a href="#cite_note-stewart-51">[51]</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic typing">Dynamic typing</a> and <a href="Duck_typing" title="Duck typing">duck typing</a></li>

<li>Everything is an <a href="Expression_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression (programming)">expression</a> (even <a href="Statement_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Statement (programming)">statements</a>) and everything is executed <a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperatively</a> (even <a href="Declaration_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration (computer science)">declarations</a>)</li>

<li>Succinct and flexible syntax<a href="#cite_note-venners-productivity-52">[52]</a> that minimizes <a href="Syntactic_noise" title="Syntactic noise">syntactic noise</a> and serves as a foundation for <a href="Domain-specific_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Domain-specific languages">domain-specific languages</a><a href="#cite_note-fowler-dsl-53">[53]</a></li>

<li>Dynamic <a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">reflection</a> and <a href="Dynamic_programming_language#Object_runtime_alteration" title="Dynamic programming language">alteration</a> of objects to facilitate <a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">metaprogramming</a><a href="#cite_note-codeproject-dynamic-54">[54]</a></li>

<li><a href="Closure_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Closure (computer science)">Lexical closures</a>, <a href="Iterator" title="Iterator">iterators</a> and <a href="Generator_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Generator (computer science)">generators</a>, with a <a href="Ruby_syntax#Blocks_and_iterators" title="Ruby syntax">block syntax</a><a href="#cite_note-venners-closures-55">[55]</a></li>

<li>Literal notation for <a href="Dynamic_array" title="Dynamic array">arrays</a>, <a href="Associative_array" title="Associative array">hashes</a>, <a href="Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">regular expressions</a> and <a href="Symbol_(Lisp)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbol (Lisp)">symbols</a></li>

<li>Embedding code in strings (<a href="Variable_interpolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable interpolation">interpolation</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Default_argument" title="Default argument">Default arguments</a></li>

<li>Four levels of variable scope (<a href="Global_variable" title="Global variable">global</a>, <a href="Class_variable" title="Class variable">class</a>, <a href="Instance_variable" title="Instance variable">instance</a>, and <a href="Local_variable" title="Local variable">local</a>) denoted by <a href="Sigil_(computer_programming)" title="Sigil (computer programming)">sigils</a> or the lack thereof</li>

<li><a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">Garbage collection</a></li>

<li><a href="First-class_continuation" class="mw-redirect" title="First-class continuation">First-class continuations</a></li>

<li>Strict Boolean <a href="Implicit_type_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Implicit type conversion">coercion</a> rules (everything is true except <code>false</code> and <code><a href="Null_pointer" title="Null pointer">nil</a></code>)</li>

<li><a href="Exception_handling" title="Exception handling">Exception handling</a></li>

<li><a href="Operator_overloading" title="Operator overloading">Operator overloading</a><a href="#cite_note-Methods-56">[56]</a></li>

<li>Built-in support for <a href="Rational_number" title="Rational number">rational numbers</a>, <a href="Complex_number" title="Complex number">complex numbers</a> and <a href="Arbitrary-precision_arithmetic" title="Arbitrary-precision arithmetic">arbitrary-precision arithmetic</a></li>

<li>Custom dispatch behavior (through <code>method_missing</code> and <code>const_missing</code>)</li>

<li>Native <a href="Thread_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thread (computer science)">threads</a> and cooperative <a href="Fiber_(computer_science)" title="Fiber (computer science)">fibers</a> (fibers are a 1.9/<a href="YARV" title="YARV">YARV</a> feature)</li>

<li>Support for <a href="Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> and multiple <a href="Character_encoding" title="Character encoding">character encodings</a>.</li>

<li>Native <a href="Plug-in_(computing)" title="Plug-in (computing)">plug-in</a> API in <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a></li>

<li>Interactive Ruby Shell, an interactive command-line interpreter that can be used to test code quickly (<a href="Read%E2%80%93eval%E2%80%93print_loop" title="Read–eval–print loop">REPL</a>)</li>

<li>Centralized package management through <a href="RubyGems" title="RubyGems">RubyGems</a></li>

<li>Implemented on all major platforms</li>

<li>Large standard library, including modules for <a href="YAML" title="YAML">YAML</a>, <a href="JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a>, <a href="XML" title="XML">XML</a>, <a href="Common_Gateway_Interface" title="Common Gateway Interface">CGI</a>, <a href="OpenSSL" title="OpenSSL">OpenSSL</a>, <a href="HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a>, <a href="FTP" class="mw-redirect" title="FTP">FTP</a>, <a href="RSS" title="RSS">RSS</a>, <a href="Curses_(programming_library)" title="Curses (programming library)">curses</a>, <a href="Zlib" title="Zlib">zlib</a> and <a href="Tk_(software)" title="Tk (software)">Tk</a><a href="#cite_note-stdlib-master-57">[57]</a></li>

<li><a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">Just-in-time compilation</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ruby_syntax" title="Ruby syntax">Ruby syntax</a></div>

The syntax of Ruby is broadly similar to that of <a href="Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a> and <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>. Class and method definitions are signaled by keywords, whereas code blocks can be defined by either keywords or braces. In contrast to Perl, variables are not obligatorily prefixed with a <a href="Sigil_(computer_programming)" title="Sigil (computer programming)">sigil</a>. When used, the sigil changes the semantics of scope of the variable. For practical purposes there is no distinction between <a href="Expression_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression (programming)">expressions</a> and <a href="Statement_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Statement (programming)">statements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-while-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-precedence-59">[59]</a> Line breaks are significant and taken as the end of a statement; a semicolon may be equivalently used. Unlike Python, indentation is not significant.

One of the differences from Python and Perl is that Ruby keeps all of its instance variables completely private to the class and only exposes them through accessor methods (<code>attr_writer</code>, <code>attr_reader</code>, etc.). Unlike the "getter" and "setter" methods of other languages like <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> or <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, accessor methods in Ruby can be created with a single line of code via <a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">metaprogramming</a>; however, accessor methods can also be created in the traditional fashion of C++ and Java. As invocation of these methods does not require the use of parentheses, it is trivial to change an instance variable into a full function, without modifying a single line of calling code or having to do any refactoring achieving similar functionality to <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> and <a href="VB.NET" class="mw-redirect" title="VB.NET">VB.NET</a> property members.

Python's property descriptors are similar, but come with a trade-off in the development process. If one begins in Python by using a publicly exposed instance variable, and later changes the implementation to use a private instance variable exposed through a property descriptor, code internal to the class may need to be adjusted to use the private variable rather than the public property. Ruby's design forces all instance variables to be private, but also provides a simple way to declare <code>set</code> and <code>get</code> methods. This is in keeping with the idea that in Ruby, one never directly accesses the internal members of a class from outside the class; rather, one passes a message to the class and receives a response.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementations">Implementations</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Ruby_MRI#Operating_systems" title="Ruby MRI">Ruby MRI § Operating systems</a>, and <a href="List_of_Ruby_compilers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ruby compilers">List of Ruby compilers</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Matz's_Ruby_interpreter">Matz's Ruby interpreter</h3></div>

The original Ruby <a href="Interpreter_(computer_software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreter (computer software)">interpreter</a> is often referred to as <a href="Ruby_MRI" title="Ruby MRI">Matz's Ruby Interpreter</a> or MRI. This implementation is written in C and uses its own Ruby-specific <a href="Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">virtual machine</a>.

The standardized and retired Ruby 1.8 <a href="Ruby_MRI" title="Ruby MRI">implementation</a> was written in <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, as a single-pass <a href="Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">interpreted language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1.8.7-retirement-22">[22]</a>

Starting with Ruby 1.9, and continuing with Ruby 2.x and above, the official Ruby interpreter has been <a href="YARV" title="YARV">YARV</a> ("Yet Another Ruby VM"), and this implementation has superseded the slower virtual machine used in previous releases of MRI.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_implementations">Alternative implementations</h3></div>

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As of 2018, there are a number of alternative implementations of Ruby, including <a href="JRuby" title="JRuby">JRuby</a>, <a href="Rubinius" title="Rubinius">Rubinius</a>, and <a href="Mruby" title="Mruby">mruby</a>. Each takes a different approach, with JRuby and Rubinius providing <a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compilation</a> and mruby also providing <a href="Ahead-of-time_compilation" title="Ahead-of-time compilation">ahead-of-time compilation</a>.

Ruby has three major alternative implementations:

<ul><li><a href="JRuby" title="JRuby">JRuby</a>, a mixed <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and Ruby implementation that runs on the <a href="Java_virtual_machine" title="Java virtual machine">Java virtual machine</a>. JRuby currently targets Ruby 3.1.x.</li>

<li>TruffleRuby, a Java implementation using the Truffle language implementation framework with <a href="GraalVM" title="GraalVM">GraalVM</a></li>

<li><a href="Rubinius" title="Rubinius">Rubinius</a>, a <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> bytecode virtual machine that uses <a href="LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a> to compile to machine code at runtime. The bytecode compiler and most core classes are written in pure Ruby. Rubinius currently targets Ruby 2.3.1.</li></ul>

Other Ruby implementations include:

<ul><li><a href="MagLev_(software)" title="MagLev (software)">MagLev</a>, a <a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a> implementation that runs on <a href="GemTalk_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="GemTalk Systems">GemTalk Systems</a>' <a href="Gemstone_(database)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gemstone (database)">GemStone/S</a> VM</li>

<li><a href="Mruby" title="Mruby">mruby</a>, an implementation designed to be embedded into C code, in a similar vein to <a href="Lua_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lua (programming language)">Lua</a>. It is currently being developed by <a href="Yukihiro_Matsumoto" title="Yukihiro Matsumoto">Yukihiro Matsumoto</a> and others</li>

<li><a href="RGSS" class="mw-redirect" title="RGSS">RGSS</a>, or Ruby Game Scripting System, a <a href="Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">proprietary</a> implementation used by the <a href="RPG_Maker" title="RPG Maker">RPG Maker</a> series of <a href="Role-playing_game_creation_software" title="Role-playing game creation software">role-playing game creation software</a> for game design and modification of the RPG Maker <a href="Game_engine" title="Game engine">game engine</a></li>

<li>julializer, a <a href="Transpiler" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpiler">transpiler</a> (partial) from Ruby to <a href="Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a>. It can be used for a large speedup over e.g. Ruby or JRuby implementations (may only be useful for numerical code).<a href="#cite_note-virtual-module-60">[60]</a></li>

<li>Topaz, a Ruby implementation written in <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a></li>

<li>Opal, a web-based interpreter that compiles Ruby to <a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a></li></ul>

Other now defunct Ruby implementations were:

<ul><li><a href="MacRuby" title="MacRuby">MacRuby</a>, a <a href="MacOS" title="MacOS">Mac OS X</a> implementation on the <a href="Objective-C" title="Objective-C">Objective-C</a> runtime. Its iOS counterpart is called <a href="RubyMotion" title="RubyMotion">RubyMotion</a></li>

<li><a href="IronRuby" title="IronRuby">IronRuby</a> an implementation on the <a href=".NET_Framework" title=".NET Framework">.NET Framework</a></li>

<li>Cardinal, an implementation for the <a href="Parrot_virtual_machine" title="Parrot virtual machine">Parrot virtual machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruby_Enterprise_Edition" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruby Enterprise Edition">Ruby Enterprise Edition</a>, often shortened to ree, an implementation optimized to handle large-scale <a href="Ruby_on_Rails" title="Ruby on Rails">Ruby on Rails</a> projects</li>

<li><a href="HotRuby" title="HotRuby">HotRuby</a>, a <a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a> and <a href="ActionScript" title="ActionScript">ActionScript</a> implementation of the Ruby programming language</li></ul>

The maturity of Ruby implementations tends to be measured by their ability to run the <a href="Ruby_on_Rails" title="Ruby on Rails">Ruby on Rails</a> (Rails) framework, because it is complex to implement and uses many Ruby-specific features. The point when a particular implementation achieves this goal is called "the Rails singularity". The reference implementation, JRuby, and Rubinius<a href="#cite_note-Rubinius-61">[61]</a> are all able to run Rails unmodified in a production environment.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Platform_support">Platform support</h3></div>

Matsumoto originally developed Ruby on the <a href="BSD" class="mw-redirect" title="BSD">4.3BSD</a>-based <a href="Sony_NEWS" title="Sony NEWS">Sony NEWS-OS</a> 3.x, but later migrated his work to <a href="SunOS" title="SunOS">SunOS</a> 4.x, and finally to <a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stodte-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-initial-development-63">[63]</a> By 1999, Ruby was known to work across many different <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>. Modern Ruby versions and implementations are available on all major desktop, mobile and server-based operating systems. Ruby is also supported across a number of cloud hosting platforms like <a href="Jelastic" title="Jelastic">Jelastic</a>, <a href="Heroku" title="Heroku">Heroku</a>, <a href="Google_Cloud_Platform" title="Google Cloud Platform">Google Cloud Platform</a> and others.

Tools such as <a href="Ruby_Version_Manager" title="Ruby Version Manager">RVM</a> and RBEnv, facilitate installation and partitioning of multiple ruby versions, and multiple 'gemsets' on one machine.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Repositories_and_libraries">Repositories and libraries</h2></div>

<a href="RubyGems" title="RubyGems">RubyGems</a> is Ruby's package manager. A Ruby package is called a "gem" and can be installed via the command line. Most gems are libraries, though a few exist that are applications, such as <a href="Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">IDEs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ruby-toolbox-64">[64]</a> There are over 100,000 Ruby gems hosted on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rubygems.org/">RubyGems.org</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a>

Many new and existing Ruby libraries are hosted on <a href="GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a>, a service that offers <a href="Revision_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Revision control">version control</a> repository hosting for <a href="Git" title="Git">Git</a>.

The Ruby Application Archive, which hosted applications, documentation, and libraries for Ruby programming, was maintained until 2013, when its function was transferred to RubyGems.<a href="#cite_note-raa-retirement-66">[66]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison of programming languages</a></li>

<li><a href="Metasploit" title="Metasploit">Metasploit</a></li>

<li><a href="Why's_(poignant)_Guide_to_Ruby" title="Why's (poignant) Guide to Ruby">Why's (poignant) Guide to Ruby</a></li>

<li><a href="Crystal_(programming_language)" title="Crystal (programming language)">Crystal (programming language)</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruby_on_Rails" title="Ruby on Rails">Ruby on Rails</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBlackLeo2019" class="citation cs2">Black, David; Leo, Joseph (15 March 2019), The Well-Grounded Rubyist (Third ed.), <a href="Manning_Publications" title="Manning Publications">Manning Publications</a>, p. 584, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1617295218</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMetz2018" class="citation cs2">Metz, Sandi (22 August 2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.informit.com/store/practical-object-oriented-design-an-agile-primer-using-9780134456478">Practical Object-Oriented Design: An Agile Primer Using Ruby</a> (Second ed.), <a href="Addison-Wesley_Professional" class="mw-redirect" title="Addison-Wesley Professional">Addison-Wesley Professional</a>, p. 288, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-13-445647-8</bdi>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200213161150/https://www.informit.com/store/practical-object-oriented-design-an-agile-primer-using-9780134456478">archived</a> from the original on February 13, 2020, retrieved 13 February 2020</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCooper2016" class="citation cs2">Cooper, Peter (12 July 2016), Beginning Ruby: From Novice to Professional (Third ed.), <a href="Apress" class="mw-redirect" title="Apress">Apress</a>, p. 492, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1484212790</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCarlsonRichardson2015" class="citation cs2">Carlson, Lucas; Richardson, Leonard (3 April 2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oreilly.com/catalog/9781449373719">Ruby Cookbook: Recipes for Object-Oriented Scripting</a> (Second ed.), <a href="O'Reilly_Media" title="O'Reilly Media">O'Reilly Media</a>, p. 963, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1449373719</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFultonArko2015" class="citation cs2">Fulton, Hal; Arko, André (2 March 2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.informit.com/store/ruby-way-solutions-and-techniques-in-ruby-programming-9780321714633">The Ruby Way: Solutions and Techniques in Ruby Programming</a> (Third ed.), <a href="Addison-Wesley_Professional" class="mw-redirect" title="Addison-Wesley Professional">Addison-Wesley Professional</a>, p. 816, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-321-71463-3</bdi>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200213161150/https://www.informit.com/store/ruby-way-solutions-and-techniques-in-ruby-programming-9780321714633">archived</a> from the original on February 13, 2020, retrieved 13 February 2020</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFThomasFowlerHunt2013" class="citation cs2">Thomas, Dave; Fowler, Chad; Hunt, Andy (7 July 2013), Programming Ruby 1.9 & 2.0: The Pragmatic Programmers' Guide (Fourth ed.), <a href="Pragmatic_Bookshelf" class="mw-redirect" title="Pragmatic Bookshelf">Pragmatic Bookshelf</a>, p. 888, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1937785499</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMcAnallyArkin2009" class="citation cs2">McAnally, Jeremy; Arkin, Assaf (28 March 2009), Ruby in Practice (First ed.), <a href="Manning_Publications" title="Manning Publications">Manning Publications</a>, p. 360, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1933988474</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFlanaganMatsumoto2008" class="citation cs2">Flanagan, David; Matsumoto, Yukihiro (25 January 2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rubyprogrammingl00davi/page/446">The Ruby Programming Language</a> (First ed.), <a href="O'Reilly_Media" title="O'Reilly Media">O'Reilly Media</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rubyprogrammingl00davi/page/446">446</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-596-51617-8</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBaird2007" class="citation cs2">Baird, Kevin (June 8, 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nostarch.com/rubyex">Ruby by Example: Concepts and Code</a> (First ed.), <a href="No_Starch_Press" title="No Starch Press">No Starch Press</a>, p. 326, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1593271480</bdi>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200113062530/https://nostarch.com/rubyex">archived</a> from the original on January 13, 2020, retrieved 13 February 2020</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFitzgerald2007" class="citation cs2">Fitzgerald, Michael (14 May 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/learningruby0000fitz/page/255">Learning Ruby</a> (First ed.), <a href="O'Reilly_Media" title="O'Reilly Media">O'Reilly Media</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/learningruby0000fitz/page/255">255</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-596-52986-4</bdi></cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Ruby_(programming_language)" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/Ruby (programming language)">Ruby (programming language)</a>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ruby_programming_language" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Ruby programming language">Ruby programming language</a>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:Ruby" class="extiw external" title="v:Topic:Ruby">Topic:Ruby</a></div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/">Official website</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.ruby-lang.org/">Ruby documentation</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Ruby_programming_language604" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">Implementations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Mruby" title="Mruby">mruby</a></li>

<li><a href="JRuby" title="JRuby">JRuby</a></li>

<li><a href="RubyMotion" title="RubyMotion">RubyMotion</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discontinued</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="MacRuby" title="MacRuby">MacRuby</a></li>

<li><a href="IronRuby" title="IronRuby">IronRuby</a></li>

<li>XRuby</li>

<li><a href="HotRuby" title="HotRuby">HotRuby</a></li>

<li><a href="MagLev_(software)" title="MagLev (software)">MagLev</a></li>

<li><a href="Rubinius" title="Rubinius">Rubinius</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">IDE</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aptana_Studio" class="mw-redirect" title="Aptana Studio">Aptana Studio</a></li>

<li><a href="Komodo_IDE" title="Komodo IDE">Komodo IDE</a></li>

<li><a href="RubyMine" class="mw-redirect" title="RubyMine">RubyMine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Capistrano_(software)" title="Capistrano (software)">Capistrano</a></li>

<li><a href="Hackety_Hack" title="Hackety Hack">Hackety Hack</a></li>

<li><a href="Interactive_Ruby_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Interactive Ruby Shell">Interactive Ruby Shell</a></li>

<li><a href="Redmine" title="Redmine">Redmine</a></li>

<li><a href="RSpec" title="RSpec">RSpec</a></li>

<li><a href="RubyGems" title="RubyGems">RubyGems</a></li>

<li><a href="Puppet_(software)" title="Puppet (software)">Puppet</a></li>

<li><a href="Vagrant_(software)" title="Vagrant (software)">Vagrant</a></li>

<li><a href="Homebrew_(package_manager)" title="Homebrew (package manager)">Homebrew</a></li>

<li><a href="CocoaPods" title="CocoaPods">CocoaPods</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Libraries</a> and <a href="Software_framework" title="Software framework">frameworks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Adhearsion</li>

<li><a href="ERuby" title="ERuby">eRuby</a> (RHTML)</li>

<li><a href="Padrino_(web_framework)" title="Padrino (web framework)">Padrino</a></li>

<li><a href="RubyCocoa" title="RubyCocoa">RubyCocoa</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruby_on_Rails" title="Ruby on Rails">Ruby on Rails</a></li>

<li><a href="Shoes_(GUI_toolkit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoes (GUI toolkit)">Shoes</a></li>

<li><a href="Sinatra_(software)" title="Sinatra (software)">Sinatra</a></li>

<li><a href="QtRuby" class="mw-redirect" title="QtRuby">QtRuby</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">Server</a> software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Mongrel_(web_server)" title="Mongrel (web server)">Mongrel</a></li>

<li><a href="Phusion_Passenger" title="Phusion Passenger">Phusion Passenger</a> (mod_rails/mod_rack)</li>

<li><a href="WEBrick" title="WEBrick">WEBrick</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Yukihiro_Matsumoto" title="Yukihiro Matsumoto">Yukihiro Matsumoto</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Heinemeier_Hansson" title="David Heinemeier Hansson">David Heinemeier Hansson</a></li>

<li><a href="Why_the_lucky_stiff" title="Why the lucky stiff">why the lucky stiff</a></li>

<li><a href="Dave_Thomas_(programmer)" title="Dave Thomas (programmer)">Dave Thomas</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ruby_Document_format" title="Ruby Document format">Document format</a></li>

<li><a href="Why's_(poignant)_Guide_to_Ruby" title="Why's (poignant) Guide to Ruby">why's (poignant) Guide to Ruby</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruby_Central" title="Ruby Central">Ruby Central</a></li>

<li><a href="RubyKaigi" title="RubyKaigi">RubyKaigi</a></li>

<li><a href="RubyForge" title="RubyForge">RubyForge</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruby_License" title="Ruby License">Ruby License</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ruby_programming_language" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Ruby programming language">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Programming_languages625" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Programming_languages625" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_programming_languages" title="Timeline of programming languages">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">History</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a>

<ul><li><a href="Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic" title="Visual Basic">Visual Basic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic_(classic)" title="Visual Basic (classic)">classic</a></li>

<li><a href="COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a></li>

<li><a href="Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a>

<ul><li><a href="Elixir_(programming_language)" title="Elixir (programming language)">Elixir</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a></li>

<li><a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a></li>

<li><a href="Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a></li>

<li><a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a></li>

<li><a href="Kotlin_(programming_language)" title="Kotlin (programming language)">Kotlin</a></li>

<li><a href="MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="OCaml" title="OCaml">OCaml</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Object_Pascal" title="Object Pascal">Object Pascal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a></li>

<li><a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a></li>

<li><a href="Scratch_(programming_language)" title="Scratch (programming language)">Scratch</a></li>

<li><a href="Shell_script" title="Shell script">Shell</a></li>

<li><a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a></li>

<li><a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Lists: <a href="List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming languages">Alphabetical</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_programming_languages_by_type" title="List of programming languages by type">Categorical</a></li>

<li><a href="Generational_list_of_programming_languages" title="Generational list of programming languages">Generational</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Free_and_open-source_software510" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Free_and_open-source_software510" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alternative_terms_for_free_software" title="Alternative terms for free software">Alternative terms for free software</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_open-source_and_closed-source_software" title="Comparison of open-source and closed-source software">Comparison of open-source and closed-source software</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_source-code-hosting_facilities" title="Comparison of source-code-hosting facilities">Comparison of source-code-hosting facilities</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_software" title="Free software">Free software</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_free_software_project_directories" title="List of free software project directories">Free software project directories</a></li>

<li><a href="Gratis_versus_libre" title="Gratis versus libre">Gratis versus libre</a></li>

<li><a href="Long-term_support" title="Long-term support">Long-term support</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source software</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software_development" title="Open-source software development">Open-source software development</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_free_software" title="Outline of free software">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="Timeline of free and open-source software">Timeline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_free_and_open-source_software_packages" title="List of free and open-source software packages">Software packages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_free_software_for_audio" title="Comparison of free software for audio">Audio</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_bioinformatics_software" title="List of open-source bioinformatics software">Bioinformatics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_codecs" title="List of open-source codecs">Codecs</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_open-source_configuration_management_software" title="Comparison of open-source configuration management software">Configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="Device_driver" title="Device driver">Drivers</a>

<ul><li><a href="Free_and_open-source_graphics_device_driver" title="Free and open-source graphics device driver">Graphics</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_open-source_wireless_drivers" title="Comparison of open-source wireless drivers">Wireless</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_software_for_mathematics" title="List of open-source software for mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_office_suites" title="List of office suites">Office suites</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_open-source_operating_systems" title="Comparison of open-source operating systems">Operating systems</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_routing_platforms" title="List of open-source routing platforms">Routing</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_free_television_software" title="List of free television software">Television</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_video_games" title="List of open-source video games">Video games</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_free_and_open-source_web_applications" title="List of free and open-source web applications">Web applications</a>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_shopping_cart_software" title="Comparison of shopping cart software">E-commerce</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_free_and_open-source_Android_applications" title="List of free and open-source Android applications">Android apps</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_commercial_open-source_applications_and_services" title="List of commercial open-source applications and services">Commercial</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_formerly_proprietary_software" title="List of formerly proprietary software">Formerly proprietary</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_formerly_free_and_open-source_software" class="mw-redirect" title="List of formerly free and open-source software">Formerly open-source</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Community_of_practice" title="Community of practice">Community</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">Free software movement</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="History of free and open-source software">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source-software_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source-software movement">Open-source-software movement</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_free-software_events" title="List of free-software events">Events</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software_advocacy" title="Open-source software advocacy">Advocacy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_free_and_open-source_software_organizations" title="List of free and open-source software organizations">Organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Free_Software_Movement_of_India" title="Free Software Movement of India">Free Software Movement of India</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Free-software_license" title="Free-software license">Licenses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Apache_License" title="Apache License">Apache</a></li>

<li><a href="Artistic_License" title="Artistic License">Artistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Beerware" title="Beerware">Beerware</a></li>

<li><a href="Creative_Commons_license" title="Creative Commons license">Creative Commons</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a>

<li><a href="Python_License" title="Python License">Python</a></li>

<li><a href="Python_Software_Foundation_License" title="Python Software Foundation License">Python Software Foundation License</a></li>

<li><a href="Shared_Source_Initiative" title="Shared Source Initiative">Shared Source Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Sleepycat_License" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleepycat License">Sleepycat</a></li>

<li><a href="Unlicense" title="Unlicense">Unlicense</a></li>

<li><a href="WTFPL" title="WTFPL">WTFPL</a></li>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Types_and_standards23" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types and standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_free_and_open-source_software_licenses" title="Comparison of free and open-source software licenses">Comparison of licenses</a></li>

<li><a href="Contributor_License_Agreement" title="Contributor License Agreement">Contributor License Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li>

<li><a href="Debian_Free_Software_Guidelines" class="mw-redirect" title="Debian Free Software Guidelines">Debian Free Software Guidelines</a></li>

<li><a href="Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works" title="Definition of Free Cultural Works">Definition of Free Cultural Works</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_license" title="Free license">Free license</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Free_Software_Definition" title="The Free Software Definition">The Free Software Definition</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Open_Source_Definition" title="The Open Source Definition">The Open Source Definition</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_license" title="Open-source license">Open-source license</a></li>

<li><a href="Permissive_software_license" title="Permissive software license">Permissive software license</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Challenges</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li>

<li><a href="License_proliferation" title="License proliferation">License proliferation</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_software_rebranded_by_Debian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozilla software rebranded by Debian">Mozilla software rebranding</a></li>

<li><a href="Proprietary_device_driver" class="mw-redirect" title="Proprietary device driver">Proprietary device drivers</a></li>

<li><a href="Proprietary_firmware" title="Proprietary firmware">Proprietary firmware</a></li>

<li><a href="Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">Proprietary software</a></li>

<li><a href="SCO%E2%80%93Linux_disputes" title="SCO–Linux disputes">SCO/Linux controversies</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_patents_and_free_software" title="Software patents and free software">Software patents</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software_security" title="Open-source software security">Software security</a></li>

<li><a href="Tivoization" title="Tivoization">Tivoization</a></li>

<li><a href="Trusted_Computing" title="Trusted Computing">Trusted Computing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fork_(software_development)" title="Fork (software development)">Forking</a></li>

<li><a href="GNU_Manifesto" title="GNU Manifesto">GNU Manifesto</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_Open_Specification_Promise" title="Microsoft Open Specification Promise">Microsoft Open Specification Promise</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-core_model" title="Open-core model">Open-core model</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">Open-source hardware</a></li>

<li><a href="Shared_Source_Initiative" title="Shared Source Initiative">Shared Source Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Source-available_software" title="Source-available software">Source-available software</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Cathedral_and_the_Bazaar" title="The Cathedral and the Bazaar">The Cathedral and the Bazaar</a></li>

<li><a href="Revolution_OS" title="Revolution OS">Revolution OS</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold"><div>

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3AFree_and_open-source_software" title="Portal:Free and open-source software">Portal</a></li>

<li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_Organization_for_Standardization_(ISO)_standards364" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="International_Organization_for_Standardization_(ISO)_standards364" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> (ISO) standards</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>List of <a href="List_of_ISO_standards" title="List of ISO standards">ISO standards</a> – <a href="List_of_ISO_romanizations" title="List of ISO romanizations">ISO romanizations</a> – <a href="List_of_IEC_standards" title="List of IEC standards">IEC standards</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1–9999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10000–19999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20000–29999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="ISO/IEC_27000_family" title="ISO/IEC 27000 family">27000 series</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">30000+</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161053#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1333" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161053#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1333" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4653817-3">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh00000128">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb144105976">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb144105976">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph503938&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX4424926">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007290697005171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/07705802X">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/4b402eb0-e1f2-4ba7-8274-aeb8a89d02db">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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